Problemas de acción colectiva en procesos de pacificación: oportunismo e instituciones
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18504/pl1937-051-2011Palabras clave:
comportamiento oportunista, diseño institucional, acción colectiva, papel de actores locales.Resumen
Este trabajo presenta una nueva lectura del proceso de pacificación salvadoreño (1992–1994), centrándose en el oportunismo como problema de acción colectiva y en su exitoso manejo, a través del diseño de instituciones, entendidas como reglas, normas y rutinas. Se argumenta que en contextos inciertos con asimetrías de información y altos costos de transacción, como en los periodos de posguerra, los actores locales enfrentan problemas de cooperación que los llevan a transgredir, engañar y posponer recurrentemente el cumplimiento de acuerdos pactados por ellos. Los resultados de este estudio permiten reinterpretar las posibilidades de éxito o fracaso de las nuevas operaciones para el mantenimiento de la paz a cargo de las Naciones Unidas.
Abstract
This article introduces what might be considered as a different approach to discus pacifications of countries affected by intra–state conflicts. Using the case of the process of pacification in El Salvador (1992–1994), I introduce several categories stemming from the new institutionalism in order to understand the role of institutions designed to tackle opportunism. The argument is that asymmetries of information and high transactions costs are particularly acute in postwar periods. This situation creates the ideal conditions and incentives for political actors to act opportunistically, which might derive in severe negative affectations of the peace agreements already in place. This is when the introduction of "rules of the game" designed specifically to tackle opportunism become critical for the success of a pacifications effort.
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Citas
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Autesserre, Séverine, 2009, "Hobbes and the Congo: Frames, Local Violence, and International Intervention", International Organization, núm. 63 (verano), pp. 249–280. [ Links ]
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Boivin, L., 1992, "El Salvador: La Paix Négociée", Relations vol. 578 (Montreal: Centre justice et fois).
Boutros, Boutros–Ghali, 1992, La larga noche ha llegado a su fin, México, 15 de enero (Acuerdos hacia una nueva nación, San Salvador, FMLN, abril, 151).
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Centro de Paz (CEPAZ), 1992, "Incumplimientos y distorsiones de los Acuerdos de Paz. Implementación de los Acuerdos de Paz", San Salvador, FMLN, Archivo General de CEPAZ.
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Córdova, Ricardo, 2001, "Demilitarizing and Democratizing Salvadoran Politics", en Margarita Studemeiser (ed.), El Salvador. Implementation of the Peace Accords, United States Institute of Peace.
Córdova, Ricardo, 1999, El Salvador: reforma militar y relaciones cívico–militares, San Salvador, Funda Ungo.
Costa, Gino, 1999, La Policía Nacional Civil de El Salvador (1990–1997), El Salvador, UCA Editores.
Dubey, Amitabh, 2002, "Domestic Institutions and the Duration of Civil Wars Settlements", Nueva Orleans, ponencia presentada en el Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, 24–27 de marzo.
Grenier Y. y J. Daudelin, 1995, "Foreign Assistance and the Market–place of Peacemaking: Lessons from El Salvador", International Peacekeeping, vol. 2, núm. 3, pp. 350–364.
Gordon, Sara, 1989, Crisis política y guerra en El Salvador, México, Siglo XXI.
Gilly, Adolfo, 1980, Guerra y política en El Salvador, México, Nueva Imagen.
Hall, P. y C. Taylor, 1996, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms", Political Studies, vol. 44, pp. 952–973.
Hampson, Fen Osler, 1996, Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail, Washington, D.C., Institute of Peace.
Hartzell Caroline, Matthew Hoddie y Donald Rotchild, 2001, "Stabilizing the Peace after Civil War: An Investigation of Some Key Variables", International Organization, vol. 55, núm. 1: 183–208.
Holiday, D. y William Stanley, 1997, "En la mejor de las circunstancias: ONUSAL y los desafíos de la verificación y el fortalecimiento institucional en El Salvador", Estudios Centroamericanos, San Salvador.
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Khalivas, Stathis, 2006, The Logic of Violence in Civil War, Nueva York, Cambridge University Press.
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Newman, Edward y Oliver Richmond, 2006, Challenges to Peace Building, Managing Spoilers during Conflict Resolution, Nueva York, United Nations University Press.
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Ramsbotham, Oliver, Tom Woodhouse y Hug Miall, 2005, Contemporary Conflict Resolution. The Prevention, Management and Transformation of Deadly Conflicts, Cambdridge, Polity Press.
Ratner, Stephen, 1995, The New un Peacekeeping, Building Peace in Lands of Conflict After the Cold War, Nueva York, St. Martin's Press.
Santamaría, Óscar, 2005, "Entrevista del autor", 28 de abril , San Salvador, El Salvador.
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Stedman, Stephen, 2001, Implementing Peace Agreements in Civil Wars. Lessons and Recommendations for Policymakers, Nueva York, Stanford University, International Peace Academy.
Stedman, Stephen, 1997, "Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes", International Security, vol. 27, núm. 2, pp. 5–53.
Stedman, Stephen, Donald Rotchild y Elizabeth Cousens, 2002, Ending Civil Wars. The Implementation of Peace Agreements, Boulder, Lynee Rienner.
Straus, Scott, 2006, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda, Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press.
Tharoor, Shashi, 1995, "Should un Peacekeeping go Back to Basics?", Survival, vol. 37, núm. 4, pp. 52–64.
United Nations, 2001, Peacekeeping Operations. 1948–1998, Nueva York, UN, en <http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/pk50.html>
United Nations, 1995, The United Nations and El Salvador 1990–1995, Nueva York, Department of Public Information.
United Nations, 1993a, Implementation of the Provisions of the Peace Agreements Related to the Purification of the Armed Forces, S/25078, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 9 de enero.
United Nations, 1993b, From Madness to Hope: The 12 Year's War in El Salvador.Report presented on 15 march 1993 by Commission of Truth. S/25500, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 1 de abril.
United Nations, 1993c, Cooperation by the Government of Nicaragua in Itemizing and Supposing of FMLN Arms Caches Discovered in Nicaragua. A/47/970–S/26008, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 2 de julio.
United Nations, 1991, Report of the Secretary–General on ONUSAL and First Report of the ONUSALl Human Rights Division. A/45/1055–S/23037, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 16 de septiembre.
Walter, Barbara, 2002, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Walter, Barbara, 1999, "Designing Transitions from Civil War Settlement Demobilization, Democratization and Commitments to Peace", International Security, vol. 24, núm. 1, pp. 127–155
Walter Barbara, 1997, "The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement", InternationalOrganization, vol. 51, núm. 3, p. 340.
Wood, Elisabeth, 2003, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador, Nueva York, Cambridge University Press.
Zamudio, Laura, 2008, Pacificadores vs. oportunistas. La difícil implementación de un acuerdo de paz. El caso de El Salvador 1992–1994, México, Plaza y Valdés/UIA.
Autesserre, Séverine, 2009, "Hobbes and the Congo: Frames, Local Violence, and International Intervention", International Organization, núm. 63 (verano), pp. 249–280. [ Links ]
Benítez Manaut, Raúl, 1989, La teoría militar y la guerra civil en El Salvador, San Salvador, UCA Editores. [ Links ]
Boivin, L., 1992, "El Salvador: La Paix Négociée", Relations vol. 578 (Montreal: Centre justice et fois).
Boutros, Boutros–Ghali, 1992, La larga noche ha llegado a su fin, México, 15 de enero (Acuerdos hacia una nueva nación, San Salvador, FMLN, abril, 151).
Cardenal, Roberto, 1992, "La crisis del proceso de pacificación", Estudios Centroamericanos, año 47.
Centro de Paz (CEPAZ), 1992, "Incumplimientos y distorsiones de los Acuerdos de Paz. Implementación de los Acuerdos de Paz", San Salvador, FMLN, Archivo General de CEPAZ.
Centro de Paz (CEPAZ), 1991, Comisión de la Verdad. Documentos de la negociación entre el GOES y el FMLN en El Salvador, El Salvador, CEPAZ, abril.
Córdova, Ricardo, 2001, "Demilitarizing and Democratizing Salvadoran Politics", en Margarita Studemeiser (ed.), El Salvador. Implementation of the Peace Accords, United States Institute of Peace.
Córdova, Ricardo, 1999, El Salvador: reforma militar y relaciones cívico–militares, San Salvador, Funda Ungo.
Costa, Gino, 1999, La Policía Nacional Civil de El Salvador (1990–1997), El Salvador, UCA Editores.
Dubey, Amitabh, 2002, "Domestic Institutions and the Duration of Civil Wars Settlements", Nueva Orleans, ponencia presentada en el Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, 24–27 de marzo.
Grenier Y. y J. Daudelin, 1995, "Foreign Assistance and the Market–place of Peacemaking: Lessons from El Salvador", International Peacekeeping, vol. 2, núm. 3, pp. 350–364.
Gordon, Sara, 1989, Crisis política y guerra en El Salvador, México, Siglo XXI.
Gilly, Adolfo, 1980, Guerra y política en El Salvador, México, Nueva Imagen.
Hall, P. y C. Taylor, 1996, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms", Political Studies, vol. 44, pp. 952–973.
Hampson, Fen Osler, 1996, Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail, Washington, D.C., Institute of Peace.
Hartzell Caroline, Matthew Hoddie y Donald Rotchild, 2001, "Stabilizing the Peace after Civil War: An Investigation of Some Key Variables", International Organization, vol. 55, núm. 1: 183–208.
Holiday, D. y William Stanley, 1997, "En la mejor de las circunstancias: ONUSAL y los desafíos de la verificación y el fortalecimiento institucional en El Salvador", Estudios Centroamericanos, San Salvador.
Jervis, Robert, 1978, "Cooperation under the Security Dilemma", World Politics, vol. 30, núm. 2, pp. 167–214.
Jones, Bruce, 2001, The Challengers of Strategic Coordination: Containing Opposition and Sustaining Implementation of Peace Agreements in Civil Wars, Nueva York, International Peace Academy, pp. 1–28.
Khalivas, Stathis, 2006, The Logic of Violence in Civil War, Nueva York, Cambridge University Press.
Licklider, Roy, 1995, "Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945–1993", American Political Science Review, vol. 89, núm. 3, pp. 681–687.
Lungo, Mario, 1991, El Salvador en los ochenta: contrainsurgencia y revolución, San Salvador, Editorial Universitaria.
Luttwak, Edward, 1999, "Give War a Chance", Foreing Affairs, vol. 78, núm. 4, pp. 36–44.
March, James y Johan Olsen, 1984, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life", American Political Science Review, vol. 78, pp. 738–749.
North, Douglas, 1990, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Newman, Edward y Oliver Richmond, 2006, Challenges to Peace Building, Managing Spoilers during Conflict Resolution, Nueva York, United Nations University Press.
Olson, Marcus, 1971, "Increasing the Incentives for International Cooperation", International Organization, vol. 25, núm. 4, pp. 886–874.
Olson, Marcus, 1965, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.
Ottaway, Marina, 2001, "Think Again: Nation Building", Foreign Policy Magazine, Washington, D.C., Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, en <http://www.ceip.org/files/publications>
Paris, Roland 1997. "Peacebuilding and the Limits of Liberal Internationalism", International Security, vol. 22, núm. 2, pp. 54–89.
Peceny, M. y William Stanley, 2001, "Liberal Social Reconstruction and the Resolution of Civil Wars in Central America", International Organization,vol. 55, núm. 1, pp. 150.
Peters, Guy, 1999, El nuevo institucionalismo. Teoría institucional en ciencia política. Barcelona, Gedisa.
Ramsbotham, Oliver, Tom Woodhouse y Hug Miall, 2005, Contemporary Conflict Resolution. The Prevention, Management and Transformation of Deadly Conflicts, Cambdridge, Polity Press.
Ratner, Stephen, 1995, The New un Peacekeeping, Building Peace in Lands of Conflict After the Cold War, Nueva York, St. Martin's Press.
Santamaría, Óscar, 2005, "Entrevista del autor", 28 de abril , San Salvador, El Salvador.
Samayoa, Salvador, 2003, El Salvador. La reforma pactada, San Salvador, UCA Editores.
Stedman, Stephen, 2001, Implementing Peace Agreements in Civil Wars. Lessons and Recommendations for Policymakers, Nueva York, Stanford University, International Peace Academy.
Stedman, Stephen, 1997, "Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes", International Security, vol. 27, núm. 2, pp. 5–53.
Stedman, Stephen, Donald Rotchild y Elizabeth Cousens, 2002, Ending Civil Wars. The Implementation of Peace Agreements, Boulder, Lynee Rienner.
Straus, Scott, 2006, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda, Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press.
Tharoor, Shashi, 1995, "Should un Peacekeeping go Back to Basics?", Survival, vol. 37, núm. 4, pp. 52–64.
United Nations, 2001, Peacekeeping Operations. 1948–1998, Nueva York, UN, en <http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/pk50.html>
United Nations, 1995, The United Nations and El Salvador 1990–1995, Nueva York, Department of Public Information.
United Nations, 1993a, Implementation of the Provisions of the Peace Agreements Related to the Purification of the Armed Forces, S/25078, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 9 de enero.
United Nations, 1993b, From Madness to Hope: The 12 Year's War in El Salvador.Report presented on 15 march 1993 by Commission of Truth. S/25500, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 1 de abril.
United Nations, 1993c, Cooperation by the Government of Nicaragua in Itemizing and Supposing of FMLN Arms Caches Discovered in Nicaragua. A/47/970–S/26008, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 2 de julio.
United Nations, 1991, Report of the Secretary–General on ONUSAL and First Report of the ONUSALl Human Rights Division. A/45/1055–S/23037, Nueva York, Department of Public Information, 16 de septiembre.
Walter, Barbara, 2002, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Walter, Barbara, 1999, "Designing Transitions from Civil War Settlement Demobilization, Democratization and Commitments to Peace", International Security, vol. 24, núm. 1, pp. 127–155
Walter Barbara, 1997, "The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement", InternationalOrganization, vol. 51, núm. 3, p. 340.
Wood, Elisabeth, 2003, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador, Nueva York, Cambridge University Press.
Zamudio, Laura, 2008, Pacificadores vs. oportunistas. La difícil implementación de un acuerdo de paz. El caso de El Salvador 1992–1994, México, Plaza y Valdés/UIA.
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2011-01-01
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Zamudio González, L. (2011). Problemas de acción colectiva en procesos de pacificación: oportunismo e instituciones. Perfiles Latinoamericanos, 19(37), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.18504/pl1937-051-2011
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Derechos de autor 2011 Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, sede México
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0.
Esta obra está bajo una licencia Atribución-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC 4.0)
